* THE FINAL KEY ELEMENT OF ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

* IN MANY WAYS, THE LINKING FACTOR BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY

* A POWERFUL DRIVER / INDICATOR BEHIND ALL OF HUMAN, CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY

* CENTERS OF POWER AND CULTURE

* CITIES ARE REPRESENTATIVE OF CULTURAL / HISTORICAL IMPULSES… Back to the landscape idea…

DEFINITIONS

• WHAT IS A CITY?
  • Defined by a census bureau
  • Has a boundary
  • Has density, a non-rural occupational structure, control.
  • Centers of culture
• Urbanization vs. Urbanism
  • URBANIZATION – the process of becoming urban
  • URBANISM – a way of life. How would your life be different when you get to the city?
• Other
  • MSA – Metropolitan Statistical Area – delineated on the basis of a central urban area of influence
    • Spread out to counties / rural if they have strong social and economic ties to the central area as measured by commuting and employment.
    • outlying areas may actually be rural in nature.
  • Functional City – Serves a function other than governmental administration (trade, religious, military)
  • Administrative City – Main purpose is as administrative center

WHY DO CITIES GROW?

• HYDRAULIC CIVILIZATION model
  • Urbanization related to large scale irrigated agricultural projects
    • Large scale irrigation often increases FOOD production
    • Creates food surpluses, thus enabling more urban based specialized employment  – industry.
    • Large scale public works project requires CENTRALIZED AUTHORITY / CONTROL
    • An element in some, but not all early city systems
• MILITARY, COERCION and WARFARE Model
  • Cities as center of centralized military power.
  • In areas where population is growing and resources limited
  • A struggle to control resources
  • Town as a DEFENDED settlement
  • A focusing of power and resources in centralized OR strategic administrative / military locations
  • Evident in some early cities, but not all.
• INNOVATION / INTERACTION Model
  • Emphasizes human inventiveness and creativity
  • Cities as centers of technological / economic / political change
  • Cities were the outgrowth of rising political power and became focal points of MORE innovation.
  • Growth creates growth.
• Explanation of the urban origin
  • No single factor … a manifestation of many things
    • Response to need for RESOURCE MANIPULATION
    • Response to ACCUMULATIONS OF POWER
    • Response to SPECIALIZED LABOR NEEDS
    • Response to AGRICULTURAL SURPLUS
    • Response to TRADE / INTERRACTION (markets), DEFENSE
    • Response to INNOVATION

BEGINNINGS OF URBANIZATION

* Several important early centers of urbanization developed in the ancient world             … some clearly connected with one another … some adapting idea of the ‘city’             quite independently…

• Cities of Mesopotamia
  • Ancient HEARTH for Western cities … though not Western itself.
  • S. area of Sumer … Tirgris and Euphrates … CORE AREA for world’s OLDEST cities.
    • Shares some parallels with more modern def. of cities (density, border, non-rural occu., center of power/culture)
  • While several “villages” pop up earlier, true urbanization occurs around 3500 B.C.
    • Ag. spread with help of Public Works Irrigation.
    • Irrigation led to growth of tools (plow)
    • Size of communities rose as SURPLUSES were produced
    • Political power center made of bureaucrats and priests
    • Temples (ziggurat) as city center, center of religious, center of economic (grain) storage and dispersal.
    • City States political structure
    • Invention of writing for record keeping, communication, trade
    • Ur – 35,000 to 200,000 pop. Perhaps 500,000 in “MSA”
  • Diffusion – use and idea of city spread E to Indus Valley, S to Nile, W to Mediterranean
• Indus Valley – modern Pakistan
  • Highly urbanized by 2200 BC
  • VERY similar in function to early Sumerian cities
    • Irrigated agriculture
    • Joint political / religious centers
    • Trade lines extended W to Sumer
    • Harappa and Mohenjodaro
      • strong boundaries, fortifications
      • built with amazingly regular street plan
• Nile Valley – Original large settlement, but not “urban”
  • Did have various capitals – Memphis, Thebes
  • Cities played no central role – authority lay in the power of the individual, not the place
  • Cities used for burials, ceremony, not political power.
• Eastern Mediterranean
  • Outgrowth of Sumerian development, but VERY different in function.
  • Centers of trade and commerce, not religion
  • Military and political power largely to support trade
• The Chinese City
  • Apparently independent.
  • Huang He Region E Central China 1500 BC
  • Agriculture, focus of power, boundaries, centers of dynasties.
  • A Hierarchy of cites developed in Imperial Political Structure – control, expansion etc.
    • IMPERIAL CAPITAL
    • PROVINCIAL CAPITAL
    • HSIEN CAPITAL – county seat. To collect taxes and act as a nodal center for rural countryside
• Meso-American City
  • Much later urbanization process – 200 B.C.
  • City’s growth accompanied POLITICAL unification of whole region. Also RELIGIOUS centers
  • But… no unifying rivers as elsewhere in Old World. Distinctive
  • Also, no walls…
  • Tenochtitlan (Mexico City)

EUROPEAN URBAN MODEL – The Western City Evolution

• Eastern Mediterranean Roots
  • Phoenician city – building for trade (1200 B.C.)
• The Classical Era – Greeks and Romans (500 BC – 300 AD)
  • Greek City-State:
    • evolution of a geometrical urban landscape
    • trade orientated function
      • Agora – central open place, evolved into permanent comm. District
    • Intimate relationship between Greek city and surrounding countryside – city as marketplace for rural products. City’s pop. fed by countryside.
  • Roman City – many parallels, but some differences.
    • Romans adopted idea of regular layout … even more formalized. Trade orientated city (central forum, emporium)
    • Differed – didn’t evolve organically. Imposed from without.
    • Center of political / military control, order
  • Medieval Era of Urbanization (500 AD – 1500 AD)
    • Order / structure collapsed after fall of Roman Empire.
      • Cities didn’t necessarily collapse, but most contracted, function reduced.
      • Less need for trade, specialization
      • Power shifted to Christian Church and RURAL Feudal Landed Aristocracy
    • Later Medieval Period (after 11th c.) – Several important urban developments
      • Dominance of Trading Towns in N. Italy – Genoa, Milan, Florence, Venice –
        • Retained long distance trade with East.
        • Brought technical, economic inf.
      • NW European Urban Hearth
        • Legacy of Romans
        • Less internal strife (more homogenous). More civic cooperation (church / wall / market building)
        • City once again becomes economic trade center.
        • Occupation quarter – city divided often by trade. Guild hall. City takes economic urban form.
        • Vertical Segregation of town -
          • 1st Floor – Selling, display  2nd F. – Master
          • 3rd and 4th F. – Journeymen and Apprent.
  • Rise of Modern European City – Several types … A characteristic form and function
    • Merchants Town
      • NW Europe and Britain
      • Urban landscape focused on trade
      • Post 1500 – increased role for trade landscape in most cities
      • Altered urban landscape in ways to promote trade, circulation, interaction
      • MUCH more dynamic and capitalistic than earlier Euro City.
      • No accident its focus was in same area as Protestantism
      • More banks, warehouse districts, docks, wharfs, wider roads
      • FUNCTIONAL CITY – ex. Amsterdam, London
    • Renaissance City
      • Formed as princes and kings grew more powerful at the close of M.Ages.
      • Larger and more elaborate cityscapes.
      • Visual symbols of AUTHORITY and POWER
      • Focus on beauty, classical aesthetics, open space, monumental arch.
      • France, Italy, German kingdoms (Rome, Florence, Paris)
    • Rise of Modern European City
      • Industrial Revolution – power of industry to shape landscape
      • See industry notes
      • Steam tech freed industrial activity from a dependence upon waterpower sites.
      • Whole cities, esp. in England, organized around industrial activity – (Manchester, Liverpool)
      • Elements of Manufacturing City disperse to most cities in Europe, beyond.
    • Techno City
      • With 20th / 21st Century
      • Better transportation and urban growth has encouraged suburbanization
      • Electronic Age made CENTRALITY less important
      • New functional styles. Adapted to modern needs.
  • Key Points …
    • Euro city is ACCUMULATION of all these influences.
    • Selective elements of all of these traditions have been transferred globally to places of European colonization. Pattern of diffusion

NORTH AMERICAN URBAN MODEL

* Role of Trade in the creation of the form and function of the city

* Planned Design of the Western City

* Growth of Industry in the Euro City

* Urban Growth of the Techno City

* There is a TYPICAL, REGULAR pattern to the geography of the N.A. city, to the ways activities are organized

* Most have a well-defined CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT (CBD)

* Towards the edge of the city a RESIDENTAL land use – usually in zones by economic status

* COMMERCIAL SECTOR – intervening shopping plazas and malls.

* ZONES OF TRANSITION – old houses, edge cities. A complex region.

* GROWING evidence of service sector

* Geogs and other social scientists have examined these patterns and have interpreted REGULARITIES. Models.

* 20th century brought decentralization to US cities … increased suburbanization

• MODELS

• Burgess Concentric Zone Model

o      Found a concentric zonal pattern of land use. Described them.

o      Dynamic model – city as a GROWING ORGANISM

o      Older model. Chicago. Needed update

• Hoyt Sector Model

o      Many cities do not have circular zones. Sectors.

o      Transport rouges, special industrial zones, high rent districts of DISTORT concentric ring model

o      Low rent dist. nearest to INDUSTRY. High rent furthest away. Mid-income in-between.

• Harris / Ullman MULTIPLE NUCLEI MODEL

o      Post WWII – to account for city spread

o      CBD is losing dominant position

§       Increasing competition from outer commercial zones

§       Increase in auto traffic

o      Less regularity

• Outer City Model

o      Suggests the creation of true OUTER CITIES on the edge of the older central city

o      No longer just “suburban” in traditional sense

§       Real work / shopping places in outer cities

§       Less suburb to CBD commuting

§       Refocusing of economic activities

• Consequences of Decentralization
• As decentralization occurs … many urban problems become SPATIALLY FOCUSED in old central city.

o      Population Declines – leaves behind those least able to move … poor, young, old, disabled, minorities

o      Economic Declines – fewer job opportunities for CBD residents

o      Disamenities focused precisely in the area least able fiscally to absorb costs

• Countercurrents

o      Inner city revitalization has improved selected neighborhoods … though not all CBDs

o      Some financing comes from PUBLIC SECTOR

o      Much comes from PRIVATE SECTOR – Both GENTRIFICATION

• Future of NA City
• Continued Suburbanization, decentralization
• Old central cities will have mixed experience … largest will do best, compete globally
• Trade, business, communication will continue to be prime shapers of the urban landscape

GLOBAL TRENDS …

• Global level of urbanization has risen rapidly in the 20th century. One of the truly great fundamental changes in human geography
  • In 1900 – 14% Urban
  • By 2000 – 50 % Urban … with a MUCH larger base population
  • Of 100 largest cities of 2 M. plus 36 are in MDC … 64 in LDC
• Of worlds 10 largest cities in 1992 … in millions
  • Tokyo … 27.5
  • Mexico City … 22
  • Sao Paolo … 20
  • Seoul … 17
  • New York … 14
  • Osaka – Kobe … 14
  • Bombay (Mumbai) … 13
  • Calcutta … 12
  • Rio … 12
  • Buenos Ares … 12
    • 7 in LDC
    • 3 in MDC
• Of worlds 10 largest cities in 2034
  • Mexico City (2) … 40
  • Shanghai (n) … 38.8
  • Beijing (n) … 34.5
  • Sao Paolo (3) … 32.4
  • Bombay (7) … 30.6
  • Dacca (Dahka) (n) … 29.2
  • Calcutta (8) … 28.9
  • Jakarta (n) …27
  • Madras (n) …24
  • Tokyo (1) … 20
    • 9 of 10 LDC

FINAL THOUGHTS … BOTH URBAN and HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

* Geographic education makes ordinary … extraordinary

* To make us look critically at everyday things we take for granted

* The city / the world … to see it as a cultural invention … a product of human needs and human creativity … that is quite extraordinary.

* Continue to see ordinary as extraordinary

* Distribution and location of Industrial Activity

* A KEY ELEMENT OF ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY!

* HUGE Transformative effect on the world.

* Tied in to the change in population growth, imperialism and colonialism, past and CURRENT wars, environment, commercialization  and modernization of the world.

DIFFUSION of the INDUSTRIAL REV.

• Hearth = GREAT BRITAIN
  • 1725 – 1800 = Already evident
  • More concentrated / mechanized application of technology.
  • Began as a rural phenomenon, small cottage industries – clothing, tools, household implements
    • Raw Materials into Product
  • Early attraction to WATER sites… Mills
  • 1750 – 1850 = Improvements in coal mining and production of metals. Increases the SCALE of operations
  • Shift away from the rural, focused in urban. Why ??
    • Steam Technology – Away from flow.
    • Growth of Industry created more growth = larger factories = more employees needed
    • Rising demand justified higher outputs
    • Better Transportation – RR
• Diffusion into Europe
  • Near-by areas felt effects soon. Spread into N. France, Belgium.
  • By 1850, Rurh and Saar regions of Germany. Grew Rapidly! Aided by political unification – emerges as major industrial power.
  • By late 19th C. – further diffusion to other focal points
    • N. Italy
    • Silesia in E. Europe (S. Poland)
    • Russia
• Global Scale Diffusion as well!!
  • By mid 19th C. – rapid adoption in US.
  • U S. was a HUGE untapped resource base.
  • Rapidly growing pop. – both for work, and for consumerism.
  • Initial focus in New England (textile)
  • Shift to Midwest/heavy industry post 1850
  • Further diffusion in S, W. Late 19th and 20th C.
  • Diffusion to Japan, Asia by end of 19th C.
  • Colonialism (British, other) diffused industrialism to LDCs…low cost labor, Demographic Transition Model…
  • Process / pace is MUCH FASTER today than ever before … ongoing process.

LOCATION FACTORS

Q: Why does an industry locate where it does?

A: Many factors shape the pattern of industrial location. No single factor. Will vary by industry and circumstances.

* Key challenge is that best site for RAW MATERIALS may not be best site for LABOR COSTS.

• Several KEY CONSIDERATIONS
  • ACCESS TO RAW MATERIALS
    • Ideally – Ready access to RAW Materials – at low cost – in ABUNDENT, DEPENDABLE supplies.
    • Some industries DRAWN to R.M. Sources
      • Weight loss accompanies the manufacturing process. “Bulk Reducing Industries.”
  • ACCESS TO LABOR
    • In labor intensive industries, producers MUST locate near sources of CHEAP labor.
    • Labor Availability
    • Labor Skills
    • Labor Lost to Migration
  • ACCESS TO MARKETS
    • Proximity to CUSTOMERS can be a major locational factor.
    • If consumers are CLUSTERED, locate near cluster…
    • If consumers are DISPERSED, central spot
    • Where is this key…
      • Bulk Gaining Industries …
      • Perishable / Fragile Products
      • Cost of shipping is high
  • ACCESS TO ENERGY
    • All use … some processes need abundance of CHEAP energy.
      • River, Oil / Coal, Coastal for overseas energy access
  • OTHERS that have to be weighed
    • Cheap land for capital
    • Transportation infrastructure
    • Capital for growth
    • Favorable political set (tax, regs)

* All these diff. factors may point to a variety of different locales.

* Geographers need to be LOCATIONAL ANALYSTS to figure out spot where costs can be minimized, revenue maximized.

* Similar to the farmer…

MAJOR MANUFACTURING REGIONS

* 4 Dominant Areas in MDCs – some others in newly industrialized regions…

* tells us something about the favorable location factors in those regions…

• MDCs
  • NORTH AMERICA – Concentrated in Megalopolis / Great Lakes – over 1/2 focused…
    • Gulf to Pacific Coast other zone
    • Why –
      • Great Markets
      • Infrastructure
      • Skilled (and unskilled) labor
      • Large Capital Investment
    • Regional Differ. / Advantages
      • New England: Textiles to High Tech. Educated Work Force.
      • Mid Atlantic: Near Markets, finance center of NYC.
      • W. Great Lakes: Cheap Transport, heavy industry, skilled workforce (but high wage)
      • SE US: Lower labor costs (fewer unions, less educated)
      • Gulf Coast: Energy (Petroleum)
      • West Coast: Access to global trade, weather, ag, tech, educated work force, originally CHEAP land.
    • Connections and Challenges
      • Globally linked – NAFTA, links to post WWII Europe and Asia
      • Loss of industry due to outsourcing, global pursuit of $.
  • WESTERN EUROPE – Old core of Industrial Revolution. Still a power today.
    • Many highly specialized zones
    • Great educated labor source, markets, infrastructure – HIGHER cost though… more imported RAW materials
    • Where
      • Germany (Ruhr Valley, Rhine) – largest power. Also UK, France, N. Italy, Belgium
    • Regional Differ. / Advantages
      • Highly varied…some heavy, some high tech…auto industry
    • Connections and Challenges
      • Aging infrastructure, workforce
      • GREAT growth thanks to EU, common market … few internal barriers to trade.
  • EASTERN EUROPE – Big zone stretching from Poland/Czech into C. Russia. Several LARGE zones
    • Where
      • Poland, Czech, Hungary, Ukraine
      • Russian regions – St. Petersberg, Central, Volga, Urals, Kuznetsk Basin
      • New areas – Central Asian Gas Fields
    • Regional Differ. / Advantages
      • Trad. Focus on heavy industry. Strong political investment.
      • Large supply of RAW Materials
    • Connections and Challenges
      • Much of industry has been sold off
      • Increased economic gravitation to W. Europe / EU
  • JAPAN / EAST ASIA – Large growth between 1895-1945 : Imperial Japan
    • Devastation, aid, regeneration 1945-1970.
    • Big growth in export oriented industries 70s-present
    • Where
      • Kanto Plain (Tokyo), Kinki District (Kobe/Osaka)…both on Honshu
    • Regional Differ. / Advantages
      • HIGHLY skilled labor … once cheap, now costly.
      • Good infrastructure, innovation, close government ties
    • Connections and Challenges
      • Lacks Natl. Resources, but large work force
      • Strong ties to global market, support
• Emerging Nations
  • CHINA, INDIA
    • Since 1980s, RAPID expansion
    • HUGE domestic market
    • Govt. and world policies favorable
    • Good natl. resources / labor
• LDCs – two broad zones
  • LATIN AMERICA
    • Linked to N. America, Europe
    • Mexico and Brazil are two giants
    • Chile, Argentina, Venezuela
    • Global ties – NAFTA, Mercosur
  • SE ASIA
    • Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand …
    • Once cheap…increasingly important…
    • Large cheap labor force

INDUSTRIAL PROBLEMS/CHALLENGES

• MDC – CAPITALIST Countries
  • Aging industrial infrastructure
    • Old plants, technology
  • Regional disparities
  • Globalization pressures in labor
  • Environmental issues
  • Rollercoaster of the market …
• MDC – SOCIALIST
  • Large, slow to respond govt.
  • Traditional emphasis on heavy industry … needs to shift to consumer goods
  • Wide technology gap
  • Environmental Issues
  • Rapid pace of change … corruption
• LDCs
  • Need for Infrastructure
  • Distance from major markets
  • Need for capital….that stays there!
  • Skilled labor
  • Environmental issues
  • Unpredictable political climate
  • Global rollercoaster

The remaining 1/4 of the course focuses on ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

* Agricultural Sector

* Industrial Sector

* Urban Activities and Growth

For each we are interested in looking at three perspectives

* Origins and Diffusion of Activities

* Modern Distributions and Character

* Theoretical Patterns and Models

To think about … In terms of ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES and their effects on the LANDSCAPE, what idea or invention has had the biggest IMPACT?

PLANT AND ANIMAL DOMESTICATION

* Key cultural change in mankind’s history

* GREATLY modified the landscape

* Fundamentally changed society and culture

DEFINING THE PROCESS – Domestication

• A process of PURPOSEFUL SELECTION whereby plants and animals, deemed useful to man, are bred, protected and cared for.
  • Genetic selection on the basis of CULTURAL needs.
  • Often dramatically changes size and makeup of plant/animal. May even influence the ability of a plant/animal to reproduce on its own.
• IT’S A PROCESS, NOT AN EVENT
  • Ongoing. Might begin by accident (throwing seeds into a garbage pile or a campfire, noting they sprout a new plant)
  • At some point a selection process begins. Becomes a PURPOSE.
    • Seeds, plant cuttings, animals taken from SUPERIOR (choice) examples and ISOLATED and PROTECTED
• Cultural Meaning
  • Animals
    • Capture, holding, and herding…
      • Implies a degree of cooperation among people…a SOCIAL COMPLEXITY
    • Religious as well as food, clothing, beasts of burden.
  • Plants
    • Vegetative Reproduction (Vegeculture)
      • reproduction by taking cuttings of the plant and replanting it (potato, banana, sugar cane)
    • Seed Reproduction – scattering of seeds produced in the fruit of the plant
    • BOTH imply an element of cultural organization and SOME understanding of reproduction process
  • Results
    • A SPECIALIZATION / SIMPLIFICATION process where desirable plants and animals are encouraged and non-desirables are excluded.
      • WEED concept.
      • an ongoing process…

Why Did Domestication Occur? – Ideas..

• Need for food
  • Growing imbalances in an area between population growth and food supplies.
  • Assumes an already mostly sedentary pop. turned to experimenting with local resources.
  • Some argue that CLIMATIC FLUCTUATIONS (10,000 to 15,000 years ago) furthered pressure on populations
  • Significant drying or desertification in Mideast – encouraged resorting to Agriculture.
• Religious / Cultural Needs
  • Animals and plants kept as pets, or needed for religious ceremony had to be had.
  • Experimentation found other uses…
• Fear
  • Weaker groups forced to domesticate or face attacks from other hunter/gatherer groups
• Sauer Domestication
  • Not caused by hunger or fear.
  • Ample food supply – not starving would be more apt to experiment
  • Sedentary – secure, not needing to flee. Had been there a LONG time as intimate knowledge would be necessary
  • Postulated that fishing societies…
  • Varied natural environment – more types to experiment on
• *No final answer

Where did it occur? – did it happen once, twice and diffuse? Or in many places?

* Sauer was a member of the diffusionist school…in the old world …             Mesopotamia, Mediterranean, E. Asia and perhaps the Americas and then             diffused…

• Vegiculture
  • Some focus on SE Asia, based on diversity of plants, fishing culture. Then spread inland in E. Asia, and even westward…
  • Western South America – independent or diffusion. Sauer believed independent, then enhanced by contacts
• Seed Based Agriculture – Sauer believed it occurred rarely, then diffused…
  • S and SW Asia – A key hearth. NW India (Indus R. Valley). SW Asia (Mesopotamia, Tigris and Euphrates) – Wheat and Barley and Herd animals. Approx. 10,000 years ago.
  • N. China – Millet grains, Soybeans, Rice
  • Ethiopian Highlands (9,000 – 10,000 BC) – millets, sorghum – LESS DIFFUSION due to physical boundaries
  • Western Tropical America – S. Mexico to Peru – maize, squash, beans, cottons – RARE…(8,000 BC)

Global Diffusion and Modernization

• Global Diffusion – Complex process of global diffusion mixed with historical migration, trade, flow of ideas
  • Diffusion into Europe
    • From SW Asia, evolved slowly and differently across the continent.
    • Environmental diversity WITHIN Europe – provided a variety of settings, domestications.
    • Began to reflect cultural meanings
    • Once in SE Europe – 2 broad waves of diffusion
      • ONE AREA – Spread NW into rich soil basins of Danube Valley (Hungary) and N into Poland, N. Europe, Atlantic Coast. -6 to 7 K years ago – evidence of farming to England
      • 2nd AREA – W along Med. Not sure how … colonization etc.
    • Again…all began to reflect some regional culture change
    • Europe’s conversion to ag is KEY. Greater population growth, more tech. innovation. Seeds of colonization…
  • Diffusion into N. America
    • New World Tropical
      • Land Bridge? Other?
    • NW Europe
    • Mediterranean
    • Old and New World Tropical (via Europe)

Global Agriculture TODAY

* Modern Pattern is a function of 1000s of years of evolution

* A complex expression of diverse ecological adaptations to environment

* Adaptations include changing technological advances and cultural changes

• Most Significant Influences Today * Not present 500 years ago!
  • Highly commercial, specialized ag.
    • Growth of a GLOBAL economy where ag. products become part of world market.
  • Trend to intense technology – Europe’s Agri. Revolution
• Most Significant Influences Today * Present from the past
  • Traditional practices – some remain unchanged. Others blend…
• Types of Agriculture
  • Subsistence – 4 Types
    • Shared Characteristics
      • Relatively high amount of pop. In the labor force
      • Low levels of capital and machinery
      • food produced primarily for local consumption at household/village level
      • Usually associated with LDCs
    • SHIFTING CULTIVATION
      • periodic land rotation (slash and burn, swidden)
      • focused in tropical forest env.
      • land is cleared, burned to add nutrients
      • farmed for 3-5 years then abandoned. New lands cleared, burned
      • Crops vary
      • “intercropping” common
      • occupies 1/4 of the world land area, but only feeds 5% of the population
      • EXTENSIVE land use
      • can be efficient for small stable pop. But VERY sensitive to pop. change
    • INTENSIVE SUBSISTENCE (rice)
      • More intensive use of land — larger investments in human and animal labor per acre.
      • Can and does support higher densities
      • often a careful use of land. Intricate drainage and terracing.
      • 3 Significant Zones
        • S. Asia
        • SE Asia River Valleys
        • E China/S Japan
      • Monsoon dependent, can double crop in warmer areas
      • Green Revolution Impact?
    • INTENSIVE SUBSISTANCE (not rice)
      • Shares most characteristics except climate more suitable to other crops.
      • Wheat, corn, oats, soybeans (some cash crops – tea, tobacco, hemp, cotton … illegal?)
      • Zones – Interior of India, China, Highlands of Latin America
    • PASTORAL NOMADISM
      • practice of herding domesticated animals.
      • usually in drier climates where other types are not applicable
      • small pop. today, but 20% of land
      • animals used in many functions
      • fringe of dry Africa, SW Asia and Central Asia, N Asia and America
      • Migration pattern is NOT random, result of YEARS and INTIMATE knowledge. Often HUGE cultural implications.
      • Seasonal movement patterns in mountain areas = TRANSHUMANCE
  • Commercial – 7 Types
    • Shared Characteristics
      • Not labor intensive
      • Machinery/capital intensive
      • Large farm size with downward trend in # of farms
      • Output sold to non-local processors and consumers
      • Close integration to other businesses (transportation, processing)
      • Specialization
    • MIXED CROP AND LIVESTOCK
      • Areas with combined crop and livestock production
      • Often crops and livestock on same farm
      • Most of crop fed to animals for meat production – farm income results from meat or dairying
      • often employs crop rotation for fertility
      • Midwest US, S S. America, S Africa, Europe
    • DAIRY FARMING
      • Some areas specialize, often where less good land for other production.
      • Often smaller, more productive
      • Transport improvements!
      • Great Lakes/NE US, NW/N Europe, Oceania
    • GRAIN FARMING
      • Zone of specialization – fewer livestock – concentration on dryland grains (wheat)
      • Usually for human consumption
      • larger farm sizes
      • lower labor intensity
      • GLOBAL market
      • North American Plains, Argentina, Australia, Central Russia
    • LIVESTOCK RANCHING
      • Specialization. Meat production.
      • Much lower intensity per acre
      • Adapted to marginal environment
      • Highly commercial
      • LARGE land use
      • Low labor intensity
      • W. N America, Venezuela Llanos, Semiarid S America, Southern Africa, Central Asia, Interior Australia, N. Zealand
    • MEDITERRANEAN AGRICULT.
      • specialized form of MIXED Ag. Adapted to Med. Climate
      • Smaller % of ag is devoted to livestock. More for consumption and trade.
      • Tree crops – Citrus
      • Viticulture – Grapes / Olives
      • Mix of cereals and livestock (sheep, cattle)
      • Med. Europe, W. Coast Calif, Central Chile, S S. Africa, N. Zealand
    • COMMERCIAL GARDENING, FRUIT FARMING, ORGANIC FARMING
      • Specialized, intensive ag.
      • “Truck Farming” – High inputs of capital and tech. on SMALL units
      • Important Intensive Operation – expensive to haul, perishable foods
      • Close connection to large urban areas
    • PLANTATION AG.
      • Usually assoc. with tropical, LDC
      • Plantation – large farm unit specializing in production of for sale crops
      • MDC control, though in LDC
      • cotton, sugar, coffee, rubber, tobacco, cocoa etc…
      • scattered around tropical, LDC world.

LOCATION FACTORS IN AG.

* A look at the theory behind why people farm where they do…

• Site
  • Physical Environment – Climate, soils, slope, vegetation
• Situation
  • Farm’s location in the context of other human activities
    • Networks of distribution, markets to sell, purchase.
    • Cultural variables – ie. people’s tastes and preferences; food consumption patterns; historical pat.
• Economics Variables
  • Costs of Production – tied to SITE and SITUATION
    • COSTS – prices of production and distribution
    • REVENUES – Access to demand and markets.
    • Economic variables vary depending on WHERE the farm is located.
    • Will determine type of farm, use in a large part.
• Von Thunen’s Simplified World

* Von Thunen was German farmer, also Economic Geographer

* Developed some general “location factors” – Explained WHY certain crops were farmed WHERE they were.

o      Began with a set of Simplifying Assumptions – focused ONLY on economic variables

o      All SITE factors are equal

o      All CULTURAL factors are equal (same tastes, access to tech)

o      Farmers EVENLY spread out across the landscape

o      All commercial output sold at a CENTRAL market.

o      Assume diff. TYPES of farms

* Given this simplified landscape, WHERE would different types of agriculture land use locate?

o      Economic Variables

o      V T suggested Economic Variables would affect location of agricultural product.

o      The VALUE of a crop per unit of land – How many $$$ per acre are earned? – varies per crop.

o      The COST of transportation (shipping) will vary.

o      KEY: All farmers will DESIRE to be as CLOSE to the Market as possible. Why? – to lower costs of transport etc.

o      The Model

o      Bidding Process – goes to the highest bidder

§       Farms the produce the HIGHEST PROFIT will outbid all other products for BEST LOCATION

§       Who is this?

• Profit = most revenue
• Profit = least costs
• Those that produced HIGH PROFIT crops and those that have HIGH TRANSPORT costs
• Truck Farmers come out on top … their expected profit is higher / acre, can OUTBID
• Dairy – high profit, high transport costs
• Mixed Crop / Livestock
• Grain Farming (wheat, rice etc)
• Ranching

* Original VT Model had different crops, but IDEA is the same

* Helps us grasp key role distance, transportation costs play in shaping location/geography in Com. Ag.

Midterm #3 Study Guide

This is by no means a comprehensive list, but a guide to some general ideas that will be represented on the exam. Reading is applicable – Text – 254-289, 326-363, 364-395, 430-463. Case studies talked about in class are also applicable. If you are missing notes, feel free to check out www.matthewfockler.wordpress.com. The exam is on TUESDAY, DECEMBER 15 AT 8:00 AM!!! Review is in Reid 108, Monday Dec. 14 at 7:00 P.M.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY

• Differences between a NATION and a STATE. Types of Nation/State
• Evolution of the STATE
• Geographic characteristics of the STATE
• Methods of Organizing a STATE (Unitary v. Federal, Core/Periphery etc)
• Multinational States
• Problematic Boundaries of States (Characteristics)
• State Linkages (Economic, Political, Global)

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY – AGRICULTURE

• The process of DOMESTICATION – Selection, Cultural Meaning etc.
• Types of Reproduction
• Why did Domestication / Ag. Occur
• Carl Sauer Domestication / Ag. Process
• Where did Domestication / Ag. Occur?
• Global Diffusion and Modernization of Domestication / Ag.
• Global Ag today – Commercial, Subsistence (types)
• Location Factors in Ag – Why people farm the types of product where …
• Von Thunen’s Location Model

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY – INDUSTRY

• Diffusion of the Industrial Revolution (Hearth, Where, Why?)
• Location Factors – Why does an industry locate where it does?
• 4 Major MDC Manufacturing Regions
  • Where and Why
  • Regional Differences and Advantages of each
  • How are they connected to the world / what challenges do they face?
• 2 Emerging Nations
• Industrial Problems / Challenges (MDC – Capitalist/Socialist, LDC)

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY – URBAN

• Definitions (City, Urbanism v. Urbanization, MSA, Functional v. Administrative)
• Why do cities grow – What triggers human settlement pattern change?
• Beginnings of Urbanization (Mesopotamia etc)
• European Urban Model – evolution and examples
• North American Urban Model – evolution and examples
• Global Urban Trends

* Study of geographical expression of political activity on the Earth’s surface.

*About how we structure the boundaries, interiors of our political spaces

Defining State and Nation

• Nation – body of PEOPLE who share a real or imagined common history, culture, language or ethnic origin.
  • A nation is NOT a political term – cultural!
  • Debate over if a nation actually exists.
    • “It is nationalism which engenders nations, not the other way around.”
• State – an entity organized by people into an independent political unit. – *Synonymous with COUNTRY
  • Evolution of the State – Earth’s political space has been divided in MANY ways over time.  – MANY political geographers
    • City State – A state (political) focused on a town and surrounding territory.
      • Ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient Greece
    • Empire – A political unit in which a central authority – emperor – rules over a GREAT diversity of CONQURED people.
      • MANY examples – A STATE of MANY NATIONS!
    • State – Really a European concept
      • Arose after fall of Roman Empire, 1000 years ago – powerful rulers (kings) consolidated power around key core areas.
      • France (1100 a.d.), England (1500 a.d.), Spain (1400 a.d.)
    • Colony – A territory ruled by another state.
      • Some states had distinctive beginnings from rule by another.
      • Another European phenomena (at least in the modern world).
      • Globe carved up by European powers between 1500 and 1900
      • Then much unwound to INDEPENDENCE between 1800 and 1970
      • Creation of NEW STATES, with lingering legacy of colonial pattern
      • Long term impacts – Africa, Pattern of states today
  • Characteristics of the State (geographic)
    • Land / Territory - Physical space
    • Permanent Population
    • Government – The face of the state
      • administrative in character
      • political parties that have a heavily spatial / geographic element.
    • Organized Economy – some means
    • Systems of Circulation – Transportation and Communication
    • SOVEREIGNTY – Independence from control of its internal affairs by other states.
      • Obviously a KEY element of a state
    • RECOGNITION – by other key states. By organizing bodies.
• Nation-State – A single political entity that houses a single nation
  • Where? Does it exist?

Methods of Organizing the State

• How States are Organized Internally – Different methods of distributing power in states.
  • Unitary vs Federal forms of Organization
    • Unitary – places power in the hands of central government officials.
      • Governance is more of a top-down power approach.
      • In principle, works best in states characterized by few cultural differences; strong sense of unity.
    • Federal – power is given to units of local government within the country.
      • Governance has a bottom-up element.
      • Boundaries can be drawn to meet (or weaken) cultural groups (nations).
        • Gerrymandering – Wasted Vote, Excess Vote, Stacked Vote
    • The decision of Unitary vs Federal is highly influenced by a country’s cultural and physical geographies!
      • Advantages/Disadvantages of each?
  • Core/Periphery – Seats, nodes of power
    • Core areas (capitals, seats of power, $) have influence (or don’t).
    • Peripheries – areas associated with Cores. (suburban, sprawl, often culturally selective)
    • Hinterlands – more distant areas, tied to Core/Periphery economically.

The Multinational State – A state that contains MORE than one “Nation” or nationality.

• Stability of multinational states
  • Understood in context of CENTRIPITAL FORCES, CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
    • CENTRIPITAL FORCES – Forces that bring together (ie. The Melting Pot, One Nation, Under God)
    • CENTRIFUGAL FORCES – Forces that seek to separate nations (political parties, divided state)
• Examples…
  • Many…U.S., much of Africa, Iraq
    • Probably one of the world’s greatest examples that DISINTEGRATED is the former Soviet Union
      • 15+ Republics WITHIN the Soviet Union now independent – too many CENTRIFUGAL forces
      • Large amount of non-Russians in non- “Russian” republics
      • Still…devolution created SMALLER multinational republics

Problematic Boundaries of States

• CHARACTERISTICS of boundaries can be PROBLEMATIC and create CHALLENGES for efficient, stable governance.
  • LANDLOCKED – why a political liability?
    • States with no access to the sea. Dependent upon other states for travel, trade.
    • Boliva, Lesotho, SWITZERLAND?
  • FRAGMENTED
    • Cases where a state is in several pieces often leads to INSTABILITY, extra costs of governance, economy
    • Islands – Philippines/Indonesia. Old W. and E. Pakistan
  • ODDLY SHAPED
    • PRORUPT – Extensions can be difficult
      • Usually created for strategic reasons
      • D.R.C. (Zaire), Namibia
    • ELONGATED
      • strangely elongated states also pose challenges
      • Chile
  • Imprecise Boundaries – obviously…
    • Some boundaries in world still imprecisely fixed – regarded as “frontier zone.” – Often areas of SPARSE POP.
    • Arabian Peninsula, Central Asia
  • Contested Borders – just NOT stable
    • Kashmir in N. India – India, Pakistan, China all lay claim.
  • Perforated
    • Has pocket of possible resistance? LESOTHO, SWAZILAND
• Stable?
  • Stability in compactness, outlets

LINKAGES BETWEEN STATES – Even with these challenges, there are forces encouraging MORE economic and political linkages between states

• Regional ECONOMIC Cooperation
  • Intent on regulating, normalizing TRADE
    • European Union (EU) – 27 countries in Europe.
      • Benelux, France, Italy, W. Germany (1951, European Coal and Steel Community)
    • Mercosur – South America
    • NAFTA – North American Free Trade Agreement
• Regional POLITICAL Cooperation
  • Formed for military might (mostly)
    • NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organiz.
      • Formed as an ANTI-Communist Org
    • OAS – Organization of American Sts.
    • OAU – Organization of African Unity
• Global Scale Linkages – Post WWII, globalization
  • UN
  • GATT – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
  • World Bank
  • OPEC – Org. of Petrol. Exporting Countries – Spans Asia, Africa, S. America
  • Kyoto Agreement – Environmental Protocol.

* Political Geography is a complex issue. Political boundaries RARELY match up with Nation/cultural boundaries.

* Must understand the complex mix to understand the political motivations and linkages of each STATE

Thanks Annie!

APA Guide for References

See the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th Edition, in the reference collection, at the reference desk (call number PE1478.P82) and on reserve at (OPR 255, 2 hour check out) for further information. For the latest updates, visit the APA Style site. The following are examples of citing print, electronic, and Internet resources in the APA Style. Note: title a separate page with the word “References” (no quotation marks): double-space and indent all entries (section 5.18, p. 299).

Print References:

Journal article, one author: 4.16, p. 240

Mellers, B. A. (2000). Choice and the relative pleasure of consequences. Psychological       Bulletin, 126, 910-924.

Journal article, two authors, journal paginated by issue: 4.16, p. 240

Klimoski, R. & Palmer, S. (1933). The ADA and the hiring process in organizations. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 45 (2), 10-36.

Magazine Article: 4.16, p. 241-42

Budd, G. E. (2004, January 15). Palaeontology: Lost children of the Cambrian. Nature, 427, 205.

Book, two authors: 4.16, p. 248

Mitchell, T. R., & Larson, J. R., Jr. (1987). People in organizations: An introduction to organizational behavior (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Book, group/corporate author: 4.16, p. 248

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Edited Book: 4.16, p. 249

Gibbs, J. T., & Huang, L. N. (Eds.). (1991). Children of color: Psychological interventions with minority youth. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Encyclopedia Article: 4.16, p. 254

Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) document: 4.16, p. 257

Mead, J. V. (1992). Looking at old photographs: Investigating the teacher tales that novice teachers bring with them (Report No. NCRTL-RR-92-4). East Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED346082).

Electronic References:

Article from an Internet-only journal: 4.16, p. 272

Lombardi, J. (2004, August). Practical ways brain-based research applies to ESL Learners. The Internet TESL Journal, X. Retrieved September 12, 2004, from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Lombardi-BrainResearch.html

Daily Newspaper article, electronic version available on Internet: 4.16, p. 279

Hilts, P.J. (1999, February 16). In forecasting their emotions, most people flunk out. New York Times. Retrieved November 21, 2000, from http://www.nytimes.com.

Multipage Internet document, no date: 4.16, p. 273

Greater New Milford (Ct) Area Healthy Community 2000, Task Force on Teen and Adolescent Issues. (n.d.). Who has time for a family meal? You do! Retrieved October 5, 2000, from http://www.familymealtime.org

Electronic copy of a journal article two authors, retrieved from a database: 4.16, p. 279

Okouchi, H. & Songmi, K. (2004). Differential reinforcement of human self-reports about schedule performances. The Psychological Record, 54, 461-479. Retrieved September 12, 2004, from InfoTrac OneFile Plus database.

Fall 2009 – EXTRA CREDIT ASSIGNMENT

Cartographic Representations

Extra Credit (40 points) – DUE MONDAY, DECEMBER 7. NO LATE EXTRA CREDIT ASSIGNMENTS WILL BE ACCEPTED. NO EXCEPTIONS!

A Cartogram is a commonly used tool in geographic studies. A cartogram is a map in which some thematic variable (such as population, education, density, rni etc) is substituted for the common land area (see examples on the back). We’ve looked at cartograms in class. They can be very useful in showing proportion. (Examples of cartograms can ALSO be found on pages 54 and 55 of your Goode’s World Atlas.

You will be constructing what is known as an AREA CARTOGRAM. Area Cartograms illustrate the relative sizes of what ever variable you seek to illustrate by scaling the area of each country in proportion. The shape and relative location of each country is retained to as large an extent as possible.

Your Task:

You will select 1) a region that we have discussed in class (see list below) 2) three thematic variables to illustrate in your cartograms. Variables can be found in your Goode’s World Atlas pgs. 289-293 and at http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2009/2009wpds.aspx

IMPORTANT: These thematic variables MUST be cultural/human. Therefore, elements such as area, which would be shown on a physical map, are NOT acceptable.

3) You will then create THREE cartograms that represent your variables

4) You will write a BRIEF paragraph or two stating why you chose those variables and what the cartograms illustrate.

Product:

1) One base map copied from your Atlas (or from another source) that shows the physical and/or political boundaries of your region.

2) Three cartograms that illustrate three different variables of human/cultural geography in your region. THESE MUST BE CREATED BY YOU, USING THE PROCESS I OUTLINE ON BACK! Each of these cartograms MUST have a key that shows the quantity that each cell represents. Label each country on each of the cartograms. Finally, attach the data that you used to each cartogram.

3) A brief paragraph explaining why you chose those variables and what the cartograms illustrate (typed, 12 pt. font)

4) A bibliography stating where you got your data from in correct format (see Proj. #2)

Regions: The Americas (N and S America), Europe as a whole, W. Europe, E. Europe, Northern Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, Africa as a whole, SW Asia, S. Asia, East Asia, SE Asia, Oceania, Asia as a whole. If you have questions, please contact me.

What you will need to complete this project:

1) Graph paper. ALL CARTOGRAMS MUST BE DONE ON GRAPH PAPER.

2) COLOR PENS OR PENCILS. EACH COUNTRY MUST BE SHADED TO CREATE CONTRAST

3) AN ERASER!!! (Trust me…)

How to create a Cartogram:

1) Select your region

2) Select your variables

3) LOOK AT YOUR DATA. For each variable, find the LOWEST value. For use as an example, I will select North America (note..you can’t select this as one of your regions). My variable will be Density (or population per square mile)

United States = 81/sq mile

Canada = 8.7/sq mile

Mexico = 146/sq mile

Obviously Canada has the smallest population density. You then assign a CELL VALUE (on the graph paper) to reflect that density. Since we want each country to be represented, we start with Canada. You could make each cell worth 8/sq. mile if you want. So that Canada gets more than one cell, I’ll make each worth 4/sq mile.

4) Divide each country by the cell amount to find out ITS number of cells

Canada = approx. 2 cells

United States = approx. 20 cells

Mexico = approx. 36.5 cells (make a decision to round up, show the fraction, or round down)

5) Lay out. The key is to keep as much of the form and relative location as possible.

Points:          Base Map = 3 pts

Thematic Cartograms (10 pts a piece)

Explanation =  5 pts

Bibliography = 2 pts

Fall 2009

Project 2 (50 pts)

CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND GEOPOLITICS

The purpose of this project is to encourage you to identify and explore more deeply the many connections between geography, cultural diversity, and political conflict. Indeed, cultural differences (religion, race, language, ethnicity), political history (organization of the state, presence of nations etc), and political tensions are often interrelated in many different global settings. In particular, where there are important differences between political and cultural borders and/or where there are important cultural minorities concentrated in a well-defined geographic region, the elements for geopolitical instability are often in place.

Your task is to select one of the regional geopolitical conflict zones listed on the back for study. You are then to produce a short report which highlights 1) the historical background of the conflict 2) an assessment of how the geographical distributions of the culture groups involved contributes to the situation (ie. where groups are located, where groups come into conflict, key issues of boundaries, territorial control, and cultural differences), and 3) relevant events as they have unfolded in the conflict zone over the past 15 years.

The final report will consist of the following 3 (three) parts:

1. A map that clearly shows the relevant political and cultural borders and territories involved in the conflict. This map should therefore show: the relevant political borders, the relevant language borders, the relevant religious borders, as well as the relevant “other” cultural and physical geographies. This map can be hand drawn or computer generated. Don’t simply photocopy or print off a ready-made map. (20 pts)

2. A 2-3 page (double-spaced, 12 point font, 1 inch margins) paper addressing the key issues above. A complete paper should (as stated above) (25 pts)

1. Highlight the historical background of the conflict – A brief discussion on the             situation, who is in conflict, where it is located, and what the underlying conflict             concerns.

2. An assessment of how the geographical distributions of the culture groups             involved contributes to the situation – What are the key issues at play here?             Where are the groups located, where are they coming into conflict, and how          and where has cultural difference influenced this conflict?

3. Relevant events as they have unfolded in the conflict zone over the past 15             years – What is the status of the conflict today? What events have driven the             conflict in the recent past?

3. An alphabetized bibliography including all sources consulted, both print and electronic. I will pass out a style sheet in class and post it on my blog site as well. (5 pts)

Sources: You need to use at least three sources for this project. One of them may be your text-book. Another may be an internet source such as Wiki-pedia. The third source is required and can be a book, journal, or newspaper source. It can also be an English language news site from the region. There are many English language papers and news channels available. It would definitely be interesting to see what they have to say about your selected conflict.

REGIONAL SETTINGS AND POTENTIAL TOPICS – Places where territory / land / culture / and regional issues converge with geopolitics

QUEBEC / CANADA

WALES

NORTHERN IRELAND

SCOTLAND

BELGIUM

BASQUES IN SPAIN/FRANCE

TURKS IN GERMANY

TURKS IN BULGARIA

BOSNIA/CORATIA/KOSOVO IN FORMER YUGOSLAVIA

RUSSIANS IN ESTONIA/UKRAINE

SOMALIAN CIVIL WAR

DARFUR/SUDAN

TAMILS IN SRI LANKA

KURDS IN IRAQ/TURKEY/IRAN

PALESTINIANS IN ISRAEL

LEBANON

CYPRUS

SIKHS IN INDIA

BUDDHISTS IN TIBET

MUSLIMS IN THE PHILIPPINES

NIGERIA

RWANDA

ZIMBABWE

KASHMIR IN SOUTH ASIA

CONGO (ZAIRE)

CHECHNYA

CHAD

PAKISTAN (BALOCHISTAN CONFLICT)

THAILAND

BURMA (MYANMAR)

THERE ARE, UNFORTUNATELY, OTHERS. THIS IS BY NO MEANS A COMPREHENSIVE LIST. OTHER TOPICS OF INTEREST ARE ELIGIBLE, BUT YOU MUST SEEK APPROVAL OF THE INSTRUCTOR!

Midterm #2 Study Guide

One tip that I would give you is to look at the regions of concentration for both language and religion and match them up. Look at it regionally … what are the predominant religions and languages in the major regions that I have given you.

This is by no means a comprehensive list, but a guide to some general ideas that will be represented on the exam. Reading is applicable – p 144-217 in the text plus readings (Lewis, Wyckoff) on reserve in the library/on the library reserve page. Case studies talked about in class are also applicable. If you are missing notes, feel free to check out www.matthewfockler.wordpress.com.

Landscape

• Why study the landscape?
• What is the cultural, the physical, the vernacular landscape?
• Definitions of landscape
• Lewis’ Axioms for Reading the landscape
  • What is Lewis attempting to do in presenting these axioms?
  • What are the Axioms – be able to summarize them and talk about them (possibly in a 10 point short answer question).
• J.B. Jackson
  • What are vernacular landscapes?
  • What was he concerned with?
  • What are his American Vernaculars? What can they tell us?
• Sense of Place
  • How we acquire a sense of place. What is a sense of place?

Historical Geography

• What is historical geography? What are the types of HG studies?
• What types of questions do Historical Geographers ask?
• Case Study of the American West
  • Why is the American West well suited for Historical Geographers as a study area?
  • Turner and the Frontier Myth
    • How is the case of F.J. Turner and the Frontier Myth a historical geographic study? What was Turner saying in his myth of the west?
    • What did the west, the frontier – give to the American identity?
    • What did the myth leave out? Why did it spread?

Language

• Definitions of language etc.
• How do geographers look at language
• Global pattern of language – know the major distributions of the language patterns and clusters in the world.
• Why is language often a major factor in geopolitical issues? Case studies.

Religion

• Definitions associated with religion.
• Spread/Hearths of 5 Major religions
• Modern Global Religions/Patterns of religion
• How religion is expressed on the landscape
• Current global conflicts associated with religion.

One tip that I would give you is to look at the regions of concentration for both language and religion and match them up. Look at it regionally … what are the predominant religions and languages in the major regions that I have given you.